November 3, 2024

Pastoralism in Africa

The economy and way of life in semi-arid regions of Africa greatly depend on pastoralists and the raising of animals for them.

 It began to expand throughout Northern Africa approximately 7,000 years ago as a result of long-term climatic change, responding to the region’s unstable and ever-changing desert climate.

In Africa, 43% of the continent is still pastoralist. 

Over 22 million Africans make their living from pastoral work of some kind. Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran, and Turkana are a few among them.

 Currently, the majority of them reside in deserts or semi-arid grasslands where rainfed agriculture is challenging.

 In addition to selling milk, meat, skins, and wool, they rear cattle, camels, goats, sheep, and donkeys. 

Some use trade and transportation to supplement their poor and erratic profits from pastoralism, while others mix cultivation with their nomadic lifestyle.

Throughout colonial and post-colonial periods, African pastoralists’ lives underwent significant transformation. 

The British colonial authority in East Africa began increasing the amount of land under agriculture in the late 19th century. 

As agriculture grew, pasturelands were converted to fields, which caused the pastoralists to face many difficulties and lead difficult lifestyles.

Maasai Tribe

The Nilotic ethnic group the Maasai occupies North, Central, and south of Kenya as well as northern Tanzania.

Because of their unusual customs and attire, as well as their closeness to the many wildlife parks of the African Great Lakes, they are among the most well-known local populations in the world. 

All Maasai speak English and Swahili, which are the official languages of Tanzania and Kenya, except a small group of elderly people living in rural areas. 

Many Maasai tribes in Tanzania and Kenya let tourists learn about their culture, rituals, and way of life in exchange for a fee.

The Life of Maasai Community

The tribe is exclusively pastoral and semi-nomadic; they emigrate to new regions when their current one becomes unpopulated. 

They are self-sufficient. Maasai virtually possessed most of Kenya’s lush territory until European settlers arrived.

 Being a boy at birth in the Maasai tribe entails being a part of one of the biggest epic warrior cultures in history. 

Rituals and rites are frequently used to honor the tribal warriors.

Because most of the culture is patriarchal, most women experience poverty and cultural oppression in their daily lives. 

Maasai women exclusively adhere to customs; they are primarily denied the right to an education. Despite everything, Maasai women are filled with joy and a sense of kinship. 

They are monotheistic and worship Engai, also known as Enkai. 

The Maasai tribe primarily dresses in red clothing called “Shuka” and accessorizes with beaded jewelry. 

The Maasai tribe describes their dwellings as vast tracts of land on which they coexist with wildlife. Their semi-permanent shelters are made haphazardly.

Issues of Maasai Land

The following were Maasai issues:

  1. The ongoing disappearance of their grazing grounds. 
  2. Maasailand was split in half by an international border formed by German Tanganyika and British Kenya in 1885, during the colonial era. 
  3. As a result, European settlers progressively occupied the best grazing fields, forcing the Maasai to relocate to a small region in northern Tanzania and southern Kenya. 
  4. The Maasai lost more than 60% of their pre-colonial territory, leaving them confined to an arid area with erratic rainfall and subpar pastures.

The British colonial authorities in East Africa pushed native peasant populations to take up farming starting in the late 1800s.

 Pasturelands were transformed into farmed fields as agriculture grew. The Maasai pastoralists ruled over their agricultural neighbors politically and economically during pre-colonial times.

 By the time colonial rule ended, the tide had turned.

Other Issues

In the nineteenth century, African pastoralists could travel over great distances in search of pastures.

 They moved their cattle to another area to graze when the pastures in one place became exhausted.

 In the latter part of the nineteenth century, the colonial government started to impose various restrictions on their movement.

The Maasai people were compelled to live inside the borders of protected areas. The limits of these reserves become their new range of mobility. 

They needed specific clearance before they could leave with their livestock. Getting permissions without a lot of hassle or intimidation was also challenging. 

Those found to have violated the regulations faced harsh penalties. Their concerns were:

  1. In many white areas, pastoralists were prohibited from participating in any kind of trade and were not allowed to enter markets. 
  2. Since black labor was required by the colonists to drill mines, build roads, and establish settlements, it was impossible to cut off all connections. 
  3. The new borders and limits placed on pastoralists had a significant impact on their way of life, affecting both their businesses in trade and pastoralists. 
  4. Pastoralists used to handle animal herds in addition to engaging in a range of trades. They were subject to various restrictions as a result of the limitations imposed by colonial control.

Loss of Grazing Lands and Its Effects

Large swathes of grazing areas have also been turned into game reserves, such as Tanzania’s Serengeti Park and Kenya’s Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park. 

Pastoralists were forbidden from grazing their herds or going hunting within these reservations. These reserves were situated in areas that Maasai herds have frequently used as grazing grounds. 

The Maasai’s small land area is under pressure due to the loss of prime grazing pastures and water supplies.

The quality of the pasture eventually declined as a result of continuous grazing in a small area. Fodder was always in short supply.

 One of the ongoing problems was feeding the animals.

Effect of Closed Borders on Pastoralists

Following the imposition of various mobility limitations by the colonial authority, the pastoralists were unable to travel freely. 

Moving beyond the borders required special permission, which was hard to obtain without hassle or harassment. Those found guilty faced harsh penalties.

 In white regions, pastoralists were prohibited from entering markets. They weren’t permitted to engage in any kind of trade in many places. The pastoralists were viewed as barbaric and dangerous by Europeans. 

To drill mines, however, and construct towns and highways, White people had to rely on Black labor. Their life as traders and pastoralists were impacted by the limitations.

Effect of Dried Pastures

Cattle may starve if they can’t be moved to regions with plenty of feed after the rain stops and the meadows dry up.

 Pastoralists have always been nomads for this reason. They can withstand adversity and avert catastrophes because of their nomadism.

But starting with the colonial era, the Maasai were restricted to a region inside a reserve and were not allowed to wander about looking for pastures.

 They were made to reside in a semi-arid area that was vulnerable to recurrent droughts after being cut off from the best grazing meadows. During the drought years, a significant number of Maasai cattle perished from sickness and starvation because they were unable to move their animals to pastures.

The severity of the droughts increased as the area used for grazing reduced. Events that occurred during the colonial era did not affect all pastoralists in Maasailand equally. 

The Maasai civilization was split into two social groupings before colonization:

  • Elders: The elders made up the ruling body and convened regularly in councils to discuss and settle matters about the community. The young males who led the warriors were mostly responsible for protecting the tribe. They protected the neighborhood and organized cattle raids. Robbing was significant in a society where livestock was considered a sign of prosperity. Many pastoral communities employed raids as a means of claiming their authority.
  • Warriors: Young men who demonstrated their manliness by engaging in combat and robbing nearby pastoral villages of their livestock were classified as warriors. They were nevertheless under the elders’ jurisdiction.

To address the Maasai issues, the British implemented several policies that had far-reaching effects. 

They put leaders in control of the tribe’s operations who were drawn from different Maasai subgroups. Different limits on raiding and battle were established by the British.

 Consequently, the traditional authority of elders and warriors has suffered harm.

The colonial government’s elected leaders typically had success over time. They had a steady income, so they could purchase commodities, land, and animals. 

They provided loans to their impoverished neighbors so they could pay their taxes. A large number of people started to live in towns and carry on trade. 

These rulers managed to withstand the devastation wrought by both drought and war. They had both pastoral and non-pastoral revenue, so when their herd was diminished, they could purchase animals.

The majority of the time, poor pastoralists who relied only on their livestock lacked the means to overcome hardship.

 They lost nearly everything during times of famine and conflict. They had no choice but to look for work in the towns.

 Some were charcoal burners by trade, while others had odd employment. For those in luck, construction jobs on roads or buildings may become more regular.

Rituals to Become Maasai Warriors

To become a warrior, a Maasai must complete six rites. Below is a brief mention of the following:

  • Enkipaata: This circumcision ceremony, which is planned, arranged, and led by the father, marks the passage into the next age. occurs between the ages of 12 and 16 and coincides with the Maasai boy’s first coming-of-age celebration. Shave the head and use white chalk to paint his face.
  • Emuratare: The most significant initiation that helps the boys transition from childhood to maturity. Planning takes four months, during which time individuals must demonstrate that they are ready by acting like adults, carrying a hefty spear, or going alone at night.
  •  Olomaylo: It’s difficult to gauge how brave they are. The objective is to battle and get away from a lion.
  • Emanyatta: Emanyatta is a warfare camp made up of twenty to forty huts that were formed at random by the Maasai prophet. The rite lasts for ten days.
  • Eunoto: Wearing loose garments, the young Masaais rush to their homeland at first light on Eunoto Day, acting as though they are going on a raid.
  • The chosen camp of at least twenty homes is known as an orngesherr. It signifies the change from junior to senior elder status. Being a warrior makes one a more responsible elder. 

Pastoralism in Africa